Personality Development - The Stages, The Responsibilities and Qualities of well developed Personality - by R.Manoj Clinical Psychologist Psychotherapist and Counselor

 

Stages of personality development

 

According to the ancient Indian system the development of personality happens through four stages which also involves the attainment of knowledge experience and also training in professional and life skills. These stages are called "ashramas".  Every person has to ideally go through each of these stages of which is the source of systematic development. The four stages of development are

Ø  The "Brahmacharya" or the Student Stage or the learning stage

Ø  The "Grihastha" or the Householder Stage or practicing stage

Ø  The "Vanaprastha" or the social/emotional distancing and teaching Stage

Ø  The Fourth Ashrama: "Sannyasa" or the Stage of attaining wisdom or self-realization stage

 

Brahmacharya: The Student

Brahmacharya is a period when the person undergoes formal education. This period lasts until around age 25, during which, the student leaves home, stays with a guru, and attains professional, life skills and practical knowledge. The major duties of the students are to learn the skills and knowledge essential for leading his life and to practice unwavering devotion to his teachers. During this period, he is called a Brahmachari as he is in the stage of acquiring knowledge which can help him to reach the stage of Bhraman or ideal self and helps in to identify the path which can lead to self-realization. This period prepares him for his future profession, as well as for his family, and social and religious life ahead.

 

Grihastha: The Householder

The grihastha Ashrama begins at marriage when one must undertake the responsibility for earning a living and supporting a family. At this stage, the primary focus is on practicing dharma, but there are also goals to pursue wealth or material gratification(Artha) as a necessity, and indulge in sexual pleasure (kama), under certain defined social norms. The phase of development is supposed to be present until around the age of 50.

 

Vanaprastha: The Retreat

The Vanaprastha stage is one of gradual withdrawal. This stage starts when the person's duty as a householder comes to an end: At this age, he should renounce all physical, material, and sexual pleasures, retire from his social and professional life. This is the stage when they take advisory roles and are consulted as elders by the community at large. The primary focus is teaching dharma to those who visit them

 

Sanyasa: The wisdom

The sanyasa stage is one of renunciation and the realization of dharma. At this stage, he has renounced all desires, fears, hopes, duties, and responsibilities. He virtually gets detached from the family and society and is fully focused on attaining self-realization and the only goal is attaining moksha or release from the circle of birth and death.

 

PURUSHARTHAS: The Responsibilities in each stage

All the four stages of the development of personality are integrated with the responsibilities they are supposed to hold at each stage. These responsibilities are known as Purushartha, which are the four proper aims or duties at different stages of life. These duties and responsibilities are Dharma (faithfulness, devoutness, morality, duties), Artha (wealth, health, materialistic needs of life), Kama (love, relationships, emotions), and Moksha (liberation, freedom, self-realization). Each of the four Ashramas or stages of development of personality happens in a specific personal and social environment, each stage functioning with ethical guidelines, duties, and responsibilities, for the individual and the society. Each stage of development places different levels of emphasis on the above said four proper goals of life, and each stage is viewed as a step towards the attainment of the ideal status, namely Moksha

 

The Indian system relied on systematic training which focuses on balanced development and a harmonious combination of all the domains and abilities that help to bring about not only to the health of the body but also to the overall development of personality. These include

 

Meticulously observing the rules of health and sanitation, physical culture including yoga asanas, developing the ability of speech through the study of languages and grammar of those languages, Practicing the art of speaking assertively by speaking the truth at the right time and place including the knack of presenting even unpleasant truths in a manner that is gracefully accepted.

 

Training the mind in developing the ability to analyze and understand the discretion and discrimination so that the right decision can be taken at the right time within the limitations imposed by the circumstances, exercising the intellect by developing the knowledge in science, philosophy, and logic and nurturing a sense of justice.

 

Developing interest in some of the arts such as classical music and dance, good and elevating literature, drawing and painting, drama, and other theatrical arts that can arouse our finer emotions.

 

Developing faith in God and a habit of praying regularly.

 

Personality development

Most of the time 'Development' and 'Evolution' are used interchangeably without considering the differences among them.  Indian system especially the Upanishads talk of 'Evolution' rather 'Development'.   Evolution involves the discovery of the universal self within us and everyone. Development generally is sharpening skills and adding certain positive traits. However, Evolution focuses on a complete systematic change by removing the impediments in the 'realization of Self'.   The major impediments or kleshas in self-realization consist of 'Avidya' (Wrong knowledge) 'Asmita' (Ego).  'Raaga' (Lust).  'Dvesha' (Hatred).  and 'Abhinivasa" (Fear).  Indian theories believed in Evolution' which is a continuous process until the final goal of Moksha the blissful state is reached.

According to Baghvat gita, the fully developed personality should be free from

Ø  Dhamba – Pride,

Ø  Darpa – Arrogance,

Ø  Abhimanam –Conceit,

Ø  Krodha – Anger,

Ø  Parushyam –Sternness,

Ø  Ajnanam – Ignorance.

At the same time, personality development happens in the attainment of positive qualities. The positive qualities to be attained for the wholistic development of personality according to baghwat gita are

Ø  Abhayam:  Fearlessness

Ø  Sattva samsuddhi:  Purity of Mind

Ø  Jnanayogavyavasthitam:  Practice of Yoga for Self-realization

Ø  Danam:  Charity

Ø  Damam:  Control of Senses

Ø  Yajna:  Performance of Sacrifice

Ø  Svadhyayam:  Study of texts for 'Self-realization'

Ø  Tapas:  Austerity

Ø  Aarjavam:  Straightforwardness

Ø  Ahimsa:  Nonviolence

Ø  Satyam:  Truthfulness

Ø  Akrodham:  Absence of anger

Ø  Thyagam:  Renunciation

Ø  Shanti:  Tranquility

Ø  Apaishunam:   Aversion to faultfinding

Ø  Daya:  Compassion

Ø  Bhuteshvaloluptvam:  Freedom from covetousness

Ø  Mardavam:  Modesty

Ø  Hri:  Shame in doing unrighteous deeds

Ø  Achapalam:  Absence of craving

Ø  Tejas:  Vigour

Ø  Kshama:   Forgiveness

Ø  Dhriti:  Resilience, Determination, Endurance

Ø  Soucham:  Cleanliness

Ø  Adroham:  Freedom from envy

Ø  Natimanita:  Absence of self-esteem

The Tri-Guna Theory of Personality By R.Manoj Clinical Psychologist Psychotherapist and counselor

 

The Tri-Guna Theory of personality

 

The first manifestation of the interaction that occurs between Purusha and Prakriti, occurs in the form of consciousness (mahat). This manifestation confines one to individualism which can result in the development of ego (ahamkara). This ego or ahamkara further manifests in mind'(manas'). These interactions result in the development of Trigunas, the Sattwa 'Rajas, and 'Tamas' which reflect the temperamental aspect of an individual.

 

The Satva guna: A person with sattva guna has balance, orderly, or pure nature and a positive or evenhanded state of mind. They are kind, calm, alert, and thoughtful. The activities of satvic individuals are directed towards the welfare of the world. They are always hardworking, alert, and live the life of modesty. They lead an uncorrupted life, eat moderately, speak the truth, and are bold in their response. Satviks do not talk in a rude manner or use discourteous, insulting language while they communicate. They also don't feel jealous or carried away by greed and selfishness. They do not cheat or mislead anyone and prevent evil thoughts or tendencies from entering their mind. They have good memory and concentration and show a keen interest in improving spiritual knowledge, as a result, they spend more time worshiping god or meditating. Some even perform penance or uninterrupted meditation. A satvic individual is recognized by the way their mind, speech, and actions (Manasa, Vacha, karmana ) synchronize while they involve in any activity.

 

The Rajas guna: Rajas guna is the quality of the activity. Rajas are the motivating force that creates desires for acquiring new things and fears for losing something. These desires and fears compel a person to involve in activities that leads to satisfaction of these desires or bring down the intensity of the individual. If a person tends to be extremely active, excited, or passionate, then he is Rajasic or a person with dominant Rajas Guna. Rajas are described in the Samkhya philosophy, as a force which promotes one or more of the following: (1) action; (2) change, mutation; (3) passion, excitement; (4) birth, creation, generation

 

The Tamas Guna: The tamas guna is the quality of inactivity, darkness, and laziness. Tamas is characterized by heaviness and resistance. The person with a dominant tamas guna has disturbances in the process of perception and activities of the mind. They experience dominant feelings of Imbalance, chaos, disorder, impurity, destruction, anxiety, delusion, negativity, inactivity, dullness, lethargy, inertia, violence, ignorance, false knowledge, apathy, sleep, and drowsiness.

 

Aurabindo (1972) had interpreted 'Sattwa 'Rajas and 'Tamas' from a psychological perspective. For him 'Rajas stands in the middle of the two polarities of the gunas, the 'Sattwa' and Tamas' supplying energy to both, like a kinetic force. According to him Rajas guna, It is born out of nature's thirst for an unprocessed satisfaction

 

The behavioral and cognitive qualities of the sattvic rajas and Tamas guna according to Bhagavad Gita are

Food preferences- Sattvic people prefer Food that provides longevity, vitality, strength, health, brings happiness, cheerfulness, nourishment, pleasantness, and tenderness. Rajasic people prefer food rich in tastes like sour, bitter, salty, hot, spicy, dry, and burnt is while tamasic people don't bother even if the food is stale, tasteless, smelly, spoiled, leftover, and untidy.

 

Spiritually oriented Sacrifices- A Sattvic performs sacrifices in accordance with the methods given scriptures and without any expectations in return. A Rajasic performs sacrifices with the intention to show his power or in the greed of results and fruits of the actions and Tamasic performs sacrifices which are not in conformity with scriptures and without true faith

 

Habit- A Sattvic performs social verbal, mental, and physical actions that are pro-social in nature. He tends to use words that are truthful, agreeable, and beneficial to others and avoid words that annoy others. He is interested in acquiring knowledge for betterment and has a cheerful mind, calmness, and control of feelings. The verbal, mental, and physical activity of a rajasic is focused on gaining popularity, honor or adoration, selfish gain, and yields in for uncertain and momentary pleasure, satisfaction, or benefits. Usually, the verbal, mental, and physical activities of tamasic happens because of their unreasonably stubborn attitude and approach, their tendency to indulging in self-humiliation and act to harm others

 

Attitude towards duties - A Sattvic performs the duties as they are prescribed in the scriptures. They perform these duties even if it involves giving up of pleasant and unpleasant emotional attachments and fruits related to them. Rajasic generally have the tendency to be incomplete in their duties and shift from one to another frequently. They also tend to abandon their duties due to fear of physical strains. A Tamasic is generally has a lethargic attitude towards his duties and abandons his duties because of ignorance. They are more interested in performing acts that are prohibited, mostly, and motivated immediate desires and pleasures.

Gnana (knowledge) –A Sattvic's knowledge perceives imperishable divinity in all things A Rajasic uses his knowledge to discriminates between various things. A Tamasic's knowledge is dominated with irrational, trivial information, without a real grasp of truth. But they pretend as if they know everything.

 

Mindset – The Mindset of a Sattvic is egoless, determined, and can stay unattached and unaffected by success and failure. They have faith in goodness.  The mindset of a Rajasic is full of attachments to materialistic desires. They feel joy and sorrow strongly, seeks the fruit for every action has an oppressive. Nature. They practice impure conduct, and they are greedy aggressive, ambitious, and anxious. A Tamasic lacks devotion and self-control, behaves in an uncultured, arrogant, and deceitful manner. They are inclined to rob others for their livelihood and have the predominant tendencies to be sluggish, hopeless, procrastinating, stagnant, gloomy, and delusional. They tend to have an altered view of the truth and are attracted by pretenses and arrogance. They have an inclination to tortures themselves with harsh austerities that are not in accordance with scriptures

 

Intellect- A Sattvic's intellect is directed towards determining the correct path of activity which can lead to renunciation. They are aware of the dos and don'ts and bondages and liberations. A Rajasic intellect is at the level where they are unable to perceive the difference of dharma from adharma, dos from don'ts. A Tamasic's intellect is wrapped in ignorance, which makes them perceive adharma as dharma and sees all things upside down

 

Perseverance (Dhrti) – The perseverance of a sattvic is unwavering by which he is able to gain control over his mind, breath, and senses. The perseverance of a Rajasic is based on the reward for his actions and focused on increasing his worldly possessions and enjoyments with extreme fondness.  Tamasic has perseverance towards being evil-minded, sleepy, fearful, anxious, sorrowful, and arrogant.

 

Happiness - A Sattvic finds happiness in expressing unconditional love towards every living being without any bias. They also experience happiness worshiping god adoration, meditation, and serving the needy. A Rajasic feels delighted when stays in contact with sensual objects and tamasic find joy in sleep, idleness, being stubborn, and gets absorbed in enjoyments without bothering about the destructive ending.

 

The Sixteen personality types

The scientific theory of personality is developed in Indian medical texts. Ayurveda defines personality in terms of bodily components, the tri doshas i.e., 'Vata' (wind), pitta' (bile), and 'Kapha' (phlegm). There should be an equilibrium between these three components. Depending upon the change in the proportion of these three humors, a specific type of personality arises. While 'Vata', 'pitta', and 'Kapha' constitute the On physical plane of personality, the psychological plane is Associated mental attributes, the 'Trigunas' or three attributes — 'Sattwa', 'Rajas', and 'Tamas'. There is a possibility of seven types - 'Vata, pitta, Kapha, vatapitta, Vata-Kapha, pitta-Kapha, and sannipada'. Based on the Triguna theory the personality types have been further specified into sixteen types  — 6 "rajas 7 sattwa and 3 "tamas.

 

There are seven subtypes of personality under the satvic type. They are

Brahma type: The type of person who comprises of purity, truth, self-control, proper discrimination and knowledge, good understanding, power of exposition and repartee, possessing good memory, and lack of desire, anger, greed, conceit, delusion, envy, and intolerance. The person treats others with equality.

Rishi type: The type of person who comprises devotion to rituals, studies of scriptures, sacrificial offering, celibacy, hospitality, ingenuity, eloquence, understanding, and good memory. People with rishi types of personality are devoid of Pride, arrogance, attachment, hatred, delusion, greed, and anger.

Indra type: The type of person who has the nature that commands power. They are brave, energetic, and courageous. They are farsighted in their pursuit of virtue, wealth, and pleasure from the sensory stimulus

Yama type: A type is a person whose nature is to do the right things at the right time. They are conscientious and possess memory. They are detached and exhibit an unbiased neutral attitude towards everything. They are also devoid of passion, hatred, and delusion.

Varuna type: The type of person who is valiant, courageous, clean, and dislikes untidiness. They are the people who are devoted to sacrifices, interested in aquatic games, and uncomplicated work. They tend to show a balanced approach of both anger and favor towards everyone. 

Kubera type: The type of person who commands status, respect, luxury, and have plenty of associates. They are the people whose pursuit is focused on attaining virtues, wealth, and satisfying their desires. They give importance to cleanliness and enjoy recreations. Their anger and compassion are reasonable.

Gandharva type: The type of person who is fond of dance, music, and flattery. They have a high interest in artistic activities. They also possess proficiency in poetry, history, and epics. They are addicted to perfumes, cosmetics, garlands, fine garments, women, and recreation. They are not jealous of others but they have a high interest in attracting others towards themselves.

 

Rajas have been sub-typed into six types of personality:

Asura type: The type of person who has high levels of determination and stubbornness in their approach. They possess high valor authority. They are inflexible and conservative. They are harsh and aggressive in their approach. They tend to feel jealous and also involve in self-exaggeration.

Rakshasa type: The type of person who is intolerant. They are always angry, greedy, and cruel in their approach. They are fond of non-vegetarian food. They also possess the habit of sleeping excessively, being lazy, and feeling jealous of others.

Pisacha type: The type of person who is a voracious eater. These are the type of people who fall easily for women and can be easily controlled by them. They tend to maintain a secret unethical relationship with women. They dislike cleanliness and don't bother about remaining dirty. They act in a cowardly manner and tend to threaten others. They give high importance to unusual recreation and food.

Sarpa type: The type of person who is brave when excited but tends to remain timid otherwise. They are sharp, lethargic, but can arouse fear in others. They are also fond of food and recreation.

Preta sattwa type: The type of person who is fond of food have unacceptably mean Character. They are highly jealous, greedy, and lazy.

Sakuna type: The type of person who is passionate, fond of good food, indecisive, and unpredictable. They are inconsistent and intolerant in their approach. But also generous. 

 

The tamasic type has been subtype into three types of personality

Pashava type: The type of person always has the tendency to be critical. They are unintelligent and disgusting in behavior. They are fond of eating, sensual pleasures, and sleep.

Matsya type: The type of person who is timid and greedy. They are unintelligent, passionate, and irritable. They are fond of traveling, have difficulty in remaining in one place, and unsteady in their approach 

Vanaspatya type: The type of person who is lazy, greedy, desirous, and dull.

 

According to Nyaya philosophy, twenty-four factors contribute to the in the formation of Gunas of all created things which in turn has a role in shaping the personality

Rūpa, shape, color;

Rasa, characteristic quality such as taste, flavor

Gandha, odor; 

Sparśa, Touch tangibility; 

Samkhyā, number; 

Parimāna, dimension; 

Prthaktva, severalty; 

Samyoga, conjunction, combination

Vibhāga, disjunction; separation, discontinuation 

Paratva, remoteness; 

Aparatva, proximity; 

Gurutva, weight; 

dravatva, fluidity; 

Sneha, viscidity; attachment 

Shabda, sound; 

Buddhi or jñāna, understanding or knowledge; 

Sukha, pleasure; 

Duhkha, pain; 

Icchā, desire; 

Dvesha, aversion; 

Prayatna, effort; 

Dharma, merit or virtue; 

Adharma, demerit; 

Samskāra, the self-reproductive quality;

Theories of Personality In Ancient Indian Psychology By R.Manoj Clinical Psychologist Psychotherapist and counselor

 

Theories of personality in Ancient Indian Psychology

The ancient Indian psychology studied and comprehended personality in two ways. One is biological and the other is psychological. The biological approach is explained in the ancient medical scripture' of Ayurveda, which specifically explains health, diseases, and the treatment for the diseases. The psychological approach is primarily focused on the concept of "the Self" Purusha, its two levels, the Atman or the real self and the Brahmn of the Ideal self, the changes that occur due to the self's interaction with nature the Prakirthi. It also describes the Systematic ways of developing personality by undergoing studentship, learning, and acquiring knowledge and skills consistently at various ages and also working towards attaining the ideal self by adopting various customized methods means. These means include the consistent practice of any of the four yogas, karma yoga, Jnana  yoga,  Bhakti yoga, and Raja yoga which can help the person to develop self-discipline, retract from his attachment to sensory pleasures and   overcome his ego (ahamkara)

 

According to Upanishads, the essence of human personality is 'Atman (real self), which is equivalent to or the same as the ideal self ('Brahman'). Atman's real self in conjunction with gross and subtle bodies (Prakriti) becomes subject to the experience of pleasure and pain. Its true nature gets covered by the sensory needs pleasures and ego. The atman or the real self becomes engrossed in five types of sheaths (Kosha) and the total personality which gets constituted out of it is called 'Jiva'.

 

 

The Koshas: The sheaths of personality

According to the Taittiriya Upanishads, the personality is made up of 5 sheaths each made of increasingly finer grades of energy. These five progressively developing sheaths that compose our personality are

 

The Annamaya kosha: It refers to the material body built from the food we eat. It's called annamaya kosha (Maya means "made of" and anna means "food" or "physical matter.") Those who care for this body are nourished by the universe itself.

 

Pranamaya kosha: This is the life energy that is the source of biological processes, which involves breathing, digestion, and circulation of blood. The energy body is called the pranamaya kosha of life sheath because when it ceases to function the physical body can no longer operate. Exercises like diaphragmatic breathing and various methods used in pranayama help to enhance the proper functioning of this sheath

 

Manomaya kosha is the energy sheath made of thought processes. This sheath is responsible for our sensory and motor activities and our day-to-day awareness when we're functioning "on automatic." It processes input from our sense organs and elicits responses reflexively. Our awareness starts getting stagnant at this level when we move through life passively, reacting to our environment rather than trying to actively shape it. The health of the manomaya kosha is tremendously enhanced through the meditation which involves sensory withdrawal helps in creating a balanced fully aware approach to sensory inputs by releasing the "knots" of energy tied up in conditioned reactions, mental fixations, and obsessive thoughts. This can also help in creating a harmonious environment within oneself, take up interesting professional challenges, experience fun, and develop supportive relationships which can lead to the development of a healthy mind.

 

vijnanamaya kosha: vijnana means the power of judgment or reasonableness. It is a sheath of intellectual functioning which involves all higher mental processes. This is the sheath is what distinguishes human beings from animals as humans only have the ability to direct their own lives, can remain free from succumbing to instinctual drives, and make moral choices. People who have developed this sheath are in control of her life, not constantly reacting to circumstances, making decisions, and responding proactively. They have strong willpower and have the ability to make their own judgment by analyzing all the available information. They are content, pure, self-disciplined, studious, devoted, and able to experience the events in your life, even the painful ones, in a calm and objective manner

 

Anandamaya kosha: is the sheath which is the experiencing of spiritual bliss have aided by all-embracing wisdom and unconditional love. The bliss sheath can be developed through three practices, Seva, selfless service, bhakti yoga, devotion to God and samadhi, intensely focused meditation, which opens our heart to our own divine being.

 

Buddhism in its approach to defining personality does not deal with complex intangible vague entities such as mind, ego, or unconsciousness.  Buddhism believes in the coming together five skandhas (series of events or groups). These are 'rupa'(the physical)  'vedana'(sensations feelings and emotions), 'samjna' (conceptual knowledge), 'samskara' (coordination), and 'vijnana'(scientific knowledge and reasoning ability) which constitutes a temporary human identity. Buddhism believes that these five Skandhas are consistently transferred every time rebirth happens.

In the same period in the region of south India, a parallel medical school developed. This was the  "Siddha" school which also speaks of three constituents of personality similar to Ayurveda. These physical constituents which have a role in determining the personality are "Vali' (wind), 'azhal' (bile), and 'iyain' (phlegm).  These three constituents together were termed as 'mukkutram' or three perpetrators which should be present in a balanced proportion within an individual.  Six personality types based on Somatotyping ('thegaillakkanam ) or personality type based on the physical constitution involving the balance between the three perpetrators were also described in the Siddha system. The six personality types thus arrived at are "'vali—azhal", vali—iyam", "azhal-iyam", "azhal-vali", "iyam-vali" and, "iyam-azhal". 

 

According to Sankhya Human personality, the experiential self (jiva) is the product of combination and interaction of universal self (Purusha) and external matter both tangent and subtle (Prakriti). These Purusha and Prakriti are interdependent. The Purusha's mental and physical aspects which can be observed are a manifestation of 'Prakriti and without Prakriti the 'Purusha' is inactive. Sankhya emphasized that personality is made up of two mutually interdependent constituent — the spirit ('Purusha') and the psychophysical apparatus. The psychophysical apparatus described is the organ and functions which is called 'Karana'. So, the Sankhya school describes personality as a resultant of the interaction between Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (self). 

 

The first manifestation of the interaction that occurs between Purusha and Prakriti, occurs in the form of consciousness (mahat). This manifestation confines one to individualism which can result in the development of ego (ahamkara). This ego or ahamkara further manifests in mind'(manas'). These interactions result in the development of Trigunas, the Sattwa 'Rajas, and 'Tamas' which reflect the temperamental aspect of an individual.

Indian Psychology -Self in the Ancient Indian system By R.Manoj Clinical Psychologist Psychotherapist and counselor

 

Self in the Ancient Indian system

 

Ancient Indian schools of psychology have traditionally been concerned with the Self as a unique entity. A consistent view of orthodox schools is that the Self is an independent, intangible substance. The Samkhya school of thought and Yogic school of thought is inherently dualistic. It endorses two ultimate realities. The first one is Purusa or pure universal self which is innate with the universal consciousness, which is non-physical and thus Nirguna. The other is the psycho-physical substantiality called Prakriti, which is unconscious. It is in the unique interaction of the higher Self or Purusha, and the Prakriti that the individual self and its relationship to the world are created.

 

The components of Prakriti or nature is Buddhi (intelligence), Ahamkara (ego-sense), Manas (mind), and Indriya (senses). These components borrow consciousness of the Self (Purusa). However, in course of interaction with the material world each of these components misperceives itself to be the absolute reality or the Self.

 

Buddhi as self: Bhuddi as the purest psycho-physical substantiality. Till buddhi is untainted by desire and uninterrupted in intuitive knowledge, it acts as becomes Purusa, the universal self on being illuminated by Purusa's consciousness. In this state, it acts as the knower and controller in man.

 

Manas & Ahamkara as Self: the commotions that are created within an individual Whenever he is dominated by the desires to rule the world and control it is the Ahamkara which is the product of the Manas. It is due to the influence of Ego (Ahamkara) on the senses and cognitive processes, all experiences are perceived to be as personal which confuses an individual into believing that the 'Ego' is the true Self.

 

Body as Self: when the sense organs reflecting consciousness, even they wrongly identify themselves as Self. When any sense organs carry out its functions since it is active, it misperceives itself to be the self. But the fact is that it can function only with consciousness borrowed from self is forgotten. It is in the above situation self is identified with Prakriti the individual nature rather than Purusa universal state. According to the Yogic philosophy, this illusion is the cause of all sufferings.

 

Purusa as Self: The Supreme or the universal Being, the Purusa is believed to be immortal, spiritual, and free. As the Self, it lacks all substantial contents. Purusa is the witness, the inner psycho-spiritual state. Purusha becomes aware of various objects through consciousness (Citta) which leads to the development of attachments and ahamkara. If the Purusha has to regains its original nature of being only a witness (drista) of the mind's activities then it has to free itself from consciousness and this is the way by which liberation is attained.

 

The Bhagavad Gita, theories related to self, stresses that man is not the Self but only a part of self or Purusa. The duality of self, the 'higher state or the universal self and lower part of the individual self' is explained as follows: The true Self is 'Parabrahma'. There is, also, the transcendental, indestructible self within each one of us which is the ideal self (Brahman). Brahman has an eternal nature. But the constitution of the Bhraman is altered when it comes into contact with the material world (Maya). Owing to Maya, everything is unstable in the material world. Brahmn under the influence of the Gunas, the Klesa, and Maya develops ignorance which in turn inculcates the desire of ruling the world.

 

But Self-realized man becomes Sthira-Buddhi or Stithaprajna who is not affected by his contact with the materialistic world. They are not carried away by emotions in any situation irrespective of their nature and functions with a stable undisturbed mind. They cease to differentiate identities based on the differences in the material bodies. One has to control the wandering nature of the mind to attain the state of transcendence, which is beyond the mind-body relationship.

 

It is the desire for self-realization that makes individual adopt various path which the individual feels comfortable in pursuing. The initial path is of action (karma-yoga) which is carried out without the expectation of achieving the intended goals. The alternative path is the development of universal love and becomes a part of the happenings without developing attachment (Bhakti-yoga). Following any of these paths relives a person from fear and anxiety which in turn leads to freedom from all material bondage. This facilitates the person to move in the direction of identifying the Supreme Self by bridging the gulf between the individual self and the universal self.

 

The self as portrayed in the Upanishads can be summarized as follows:

1.    The self exists;

2.    The self is immortal and without any beginning or end;

3.    The self is essentially non-material and;

4.    The self is identical with the ideal self (Brahman), the highest form of reality.

 

According to the Katha Upanishads, the Knowledge (vidya) related to the eternal principle (aksara) is quite different from the knowledge related to tangible unstable (ksara) objects. One cannot obtain the Knowledge of an individual self or real self by reaching out and connecting with the objects in the world. Knowledge of the ideal Self is hidden deep within the innermost part of self, in the very epicenter of the person. This innermost self lies beyond the senses, the mind, and the intellect. Its essence cannot be sensed through sense organs or comprehended by the mind or described by words. This is because the Self is not observable or locatable within physical bodies. It is intangible, and hence not limited to a particular place or point. The Katha Upanisad explains that the Self can be experienced, through the practice of Yoga. Practicing yoga helps in controlling the five senses thereby keeping the mind is undistracted, and the intellect stable. The Taittiriya Upanisad describes the ideal self (Brahman) to be attained through the realization of the Self as the Truth (Satyam), Knowledge (jñanam), and Infinite (anantarm)

 

The early Nyaya-Vaisesika school of thought supported the conception of the self-stated in the Vedas as a substantial, persistent, and non-material entity. They approved the theory by the Vedantins that the self cannot be perceived but only inferred. The scholars who were a part of Nyaya school in the later periods however rejected the idea that was put forth by the early school that the self can only be known by inference. It asserted that the existence of the self can be directly perceived. The Nyaya argued that the existence of the self can be perceived through the concept of activity. They propagated the thought that from the actions of the mind which directs the sense-organ into capturing desirable objects, we infer the existence of the self'. The evidence offered by the Nyaya is that from the action of regular breathing we infer the fact that we exist. The Nyaya scholars attributed this explanation only to intelligent actions and not merely mechanical actions which are done like that of a robot. The Mimamsa school also supported this theory that the self as the subject can be directly cognized in every experience.

 

The Carvaka thought does not differentiate the self from the body. It argues that self is the body which is illustrated and differentiated by consciousness. The Carvaka denial of a subtle self is based on their evidence-based approach. Carvacas insisted that perception is the only valid source of knowledge. The Carvaka does not accept the legitimacy of inference and other sources of knowledge (darsanas). From this position, they infer that the self cannot exist because only that which can be perceived can be accepted to be existing. According to them, the four elements of air, water, fire, and earth as the basic building blocks of reality, and they can only be accepted as the ultimate facts of the universe. Carvakas emphasized that the body is a unique combination of these four elements and the self emerges from the combination and interaction of these elements.

 

Buddhists advocated the theory that a person is not a single substance existing continuously through time, but a series of physical and mental states. Every state of a person only exists for a short period. Each state consists of various psychological and physiological factors which they termed as the skandhas. These skandhas are not persistent in time but last only for one short period. The period of each state is also not predictable. Buddism stated that a person with mind and body (nama, rupa) consists of five elements (pañcha skandhas). They are

1.    Material form (rupa),

2.    Feeling or sensation (vedana),

3.    Perception (samjña),

4.    Personality  traits which develop as an after effect of the memories related to the past experience and behavior(samskara),

5.    Reasoning ability or intelligence (vijñana).

 

All of these aspects of personhood are nor permanent. They have no absolute existence. All five elements exist in loose relationships with one another. The fundamental error that is experienced by all the human beings is to believe that they are a permanent entity which can be identified with some material form, perception, feeling, disposition, or reason, or having these components within themselves. Buddism claimed that the states of perception, feeling, behavioral disposition, etc which are not permanent, succeeded one after another without having any underlying permanent, self-identical substance to unite them. The state of a person changes after a period which is short but not defined, and gives rise to a new state. This is an endless cycle of cause and effect. By these explanations, they refused to accept the theory that the self is a permanent entity. Hence Buddhism reinforced the thought that there cannot be a persistent self. Even though the instantaneous succession of skandhas gives the impression of continuity, it is distinct and discrete. These are parts that cannot be treated as a whole.

 

Advaita Vedanta sees the nature of the self and the nature of reality as a whole. According to it, the self is permanent in nature and cannot be divided or destroyed. The self does not cease to exist by the destruction of the body. It is by realizing that the unchanging self is behind all the changes, that one attains immortality. Thus, the true self is transcendental and this constitutes our essential nature underlying all forms. The true self can be experienced only when an individual from the external world. These external words include the thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations experienced by the person. Hence, in order to experience it, one has to first to go beyond the boundaries of the narrow ego or the limited self before they can begin their journey in the direction of realizing the true self.

 

Sankara's Advaita Vedantic system has its base from the Upanishads. So it emphasizes that there is one single principle that accounts for the ultimate reality, or the universal self, known as the Brahman which is characterized by being (sat), consciousness (chit), and bliss (ananda). It states that since human beings are caught up in ignorance (avidya), they are therefore ignorant of this greater truth. The ideal self (bhramn) is enteral (Nithya), pure (suddha), responsive (buddha), ever released or boundless (Mukta), existent (Satya), subtle (Sukshma), all-pervasive (Vibhu), and without a second or unparalleled (advitya). Realization of our true and unadulterated nature which is the ideal universal self comes from merging ourselves with the original and actual form, from which we find ourselves separated due to the development of ego and attachment towards sensory pleasures. All suffering arises when we become attached with impermanent external frequently changing aspects of existence and start identifying ourselves with the body or the physical self which takes us farther away from our ideal self (Brahman).