THE SHOOLS OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY - By R.Manoj Clinical Psychologist Psychotherapist and counselor Chennai

 

The schools of Indian Psychological thoughts has its roots in the Indian philosophy. The various philosophical thoughts which came in to existence at different periods few complimenting the existing ones, few improvisations and few other which questioned the core belief of these thoughts have all contributed in understanding human beings, the cause of distress, the solutions and also the path of development which can lead to everlasting contentment and happiness.

 

Indian schools of psychological thoughts can be distinguished into two major classes. The astika and nastika. The astika systems include the Vedas, the Upanishads, Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Mimamsa, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika. The nastika systems reject Vedic thought. They are Jainism, Buddhism, and Lokayata.

 

The Vedas held that the universe has evolved out of One. This first principle of "that One‟ (tad ekam) cannot be characterized. It is without qualities or attributes, neither positive nor negative. It holds that continuity (Avyaya Bhava) and complementarity in various forms or manifestations of reality. It leads one to perceive unity in diversity and seeing no contradiction between the opposites.

 

In the Upanishads the interest shifted from objective to the subjective, from the outside world to self. It believed that only in the infinite depths of self the universe is reflected in its entirety. The Upanishads described the path of the inner development, the focused on the inward journey towards ultimate reality. The Upanishads stretched the principles of spirituality to the utmost bounds of human existence. The diversity of ideas, concepts, and visions summarized in the verses of the Upanishads has been a great source of knowledge for generations of thinkers and has laid the foundations of Indian psychology.

 

Of the astika Schools, Sankhya appears to be the oldest. It was a dualist view based on two fundamentally different modes of being: the purusha (unconditioned universal self ) and prakriti (nature, physical and environmental which comprises of matter, energy, and agency). Prakriti was the cause of the material world, but purusha had no cause and does not change, till it starts interacting with the prakriti, but remains observer and enjoyer the ever-changing objects of prakriti

 

One important addition to Sankhya was the practice of yoga: the cessation of all mental functions. The correct practice of yoga included eight things:

1.    Yama: Social Discipline restraint from violence, lying, theft, or avarice.

2.    Niyama: Self-discipline building good habits like contentment, purity, Vedic study, and meditation on God.

3.    Asana: Balanced posture involving the mind-body coordination

4.    Pranayama: breath control.

5.    Pratyahara: withdrawal from sensory stimulations the pleasure and pain

6.    Dharana: focused attention on an object.

7.    Dhyana: meditation.

8.    Samadhi: Deep Concentration by which self-awareness is lost.

Yoga when practiced successfully can lead to a full realization by bridging of the gulf between purusha and prakriti, and therefore liberating an individual from suffering.

 

Mimamsa describes two kinds of knowledge: direct and indirect. Direct knowledge is acquired when one of the senses perceives something, and the sense organ is functioning correctly. But this tells us only that the object is present, not what it is. To know what the object is, we must interpret this using direct knowledge. For this, one has to take into consideration their past experience and make a logical inference to determine the class to which the object belongs, the qualities it has, and so on. Other than perception, Mimamsa describes five other sources of knowledge

1.    Inference- a conclusion reached based on evidence and reasoning

2.    Comparison - noticing that two things have similarities

3.    Testimony -formal written or spoken statement by eminent scholars

4.    Postulation -a suggestion or assumption of the existence or fact, or truth of something which becomes the basis for reasoning, discussion, or belief.

5.    Non-perception

Mismasa propagated that we gain knowledge when some phenomenon can be explained by postulating a certain explanatory hypothesis (arthapatti).."

 

Nyaya school's chief concern was epistemology or evidence-based knowledge. Nyaya school advocated the thought that only when we know the answers to the questions What is correct thinking? how can we come to know reality? we can achieve liberation. Nyaya describes four valid sources of knowledge — perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. It also proposes four sources of invalid knowledge: memory, doubt (when there are no clear indicators that would distinguish the truth from illusion), error (false certainty), and hypothetical argument.

 

Vaisheshika agreed with most of the theories propagated by Nyaya school related to the evidence-based approach. But it recognized only two sources of knowledge, perception, and inference. Vaishegika emphasizes on six dimensions or padartha of knowledge, which is substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence. Vaisheshika describes that a substance is a material in which a quality or action can exist. The nine primary substances according to Vaisheshika thought are earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul, and mind.

 

The most well-known schools of Vedanta are  Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita.  These schools arose during the Medieval period. The central doctrine of ancient Vedanta was Brahman or the ideal self: the eternal, uncaused, transcendent, Ultimate Reality which is the base of all being. God (Ishvara) was also an important component in Vedanta, though the different Vedanta schools disagreed on whether God was Brahman, or God was related to Brahman in some way or other. They also disagreed as to whether the self was identical to or part of Brahman, or separate from Brahman, or — somehow — both identical and separate from Brahman. The goal of Vedanta was to discover the Real Self (unity, in some way, with Brahman) by controlling the "lower self" and its impulses through study and meditation. According to vedantha, only this realization could stop the cycle of rebirth and all its misery.

 

Suffering was the core focus of Buddhism school. According to Buddhism, everything has a cause, and the cause of suffering is the desire for worldly things. This desire is the cause of rebirth by which we are born again and again and also experience suffering again and again in each birth. If we realize that worldly desires cause suffering, we would not hold on to these desires. But we are ignorant. Buddha's teaching focused on liberation from suffering. He postulated that it can be achieved through an awareness of these truths and abstinence from worldly desire. The Buddhism propagated an "eight-fold noble path", for liberation and consisted of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

 

Jainism emphasized that it was through the perception, we know of the material world. According to Jainism, we can also know the soul through inner perception, just as we perceive pain and pleasure by inner perception. We understand that consciousness cannot be material through inference, because without consciousness matter alone could exist like living bodies. According to Jainism sensual desires can be overcome by right conduct. Right conduct consisted of abstinence from injury to life, from lying, from stealing, from sensual indulgence, and attachment to earthly objects. The soul may attain infinite knowledge, power, and bliss only when it is liberated from its desires

 

Lokayata held that perception is the only valid source of knowledge, and all other sources like testimony and inference are unreliable. Perception reveals that the material world is made of only the four elements: air, fire, water, and earth. Minds and consciousness were also products of matter. Souls, gods, and the afterlife could not be perceived, and thus could not be said to exist. Thus according to lokayata, the only purpose of life was to enjoy pleasure and avoid pain. Some Lokayata scholars believed in accidentalism. They thought the world was ruled by chance and there was no fixed cause-effect relationship. The source and cause of the same happenings may be different during different times and in different situations. But most Lokayata believers were naturalists. Their fundamental principle was nature (svabhava).They believed things moved and transformed because of their inherent nature and according to lawful necessity.

                        

THE CONCEPTUAL ROOTS OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY - by R.MANOJ Clinical Psychologist, Psychotherapist and Counselor Chennai

 

INTRODUCTION

One of the most valuable contributions of India to the world is the in-depth research, detailed exploration, systematic analysis and elaborate recording of the different dimensions of human existence and nature, their relationship with the environment and with consciousness. Indian psychology is psychological system derived from indigenous thought Indian psychology is based on ideas and practices that developed over thousands of years within the Indian sub-continent. The sources of Indian psychology are the ancient scriptures and systems developed in various parts of the sub-continent

 

THEORETICAL ROOTS OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

The conceptual roots of Indian psychology are available in the scriptures dating back thousands of years. These concepts extensively dealt with the analysis of states of consciousness and the contents of mental activities. The core feature of Indian psychology has been to relate to oneself experientially and explore oneself through introspection and self-verification. The ancient Indian scriptures have never created a distinction between religion, spirituality, philosophy, and psychology. The brand image of religion for the philosophical thoughts which included psychological perspectives was given by the western cultures. These western cultures had associated many of the practices which were used to maintain the physical and psychological health of individuals more as traditional practices of Hinduism, Buddhism or any other religion which was prevalent in the eastern world some of which were also termed as superstitious. The prime focus of the eastern systems was to guide individuals in the direction of self-realization. The path to self-realization was understood to provide solutions to the distress people undergo at different phases of their life.

 

The Indian psychological approach presumed that the source of all psychological problems was within the person. The emphasis was on exploring the 'world within', to find solutions to the problems at the same time provide methods for a systematic development of individuals. Indian psychological approach believed that this can be achieved by creating a harmony between spirit, mind, and body which can result in everlasting happiness. It was in this pursuit that the yoga system evolved. The yoga system brought in graded mind-control techniques from simple to complex approach – the one that can be pursued by anyone according to their capacity.

 

The roots of newly emerging developments in the field of psychology have been found in traditional Indian thought and practices. As stated in the Pondicherry Manifesto (2002), "Rich in content, sophisticated in its methods and valuable in its applied aspects, Indian psychology is pregnant with possibilities for the birth of new models in psychology that would have relevance not only for India but also to psychology in general." The plurality of Indian tradition and philosophy of accommodating diverse thought systems have been providing extensive Knowledge for creatively building a new and effective system of approach for the field of psychology and psychological practices. Despite all diversity and distinctiveness between the Indian and western approaches in the field of psychology, there are some features common across all systems and schools of western psychology which is relevant to Indian psychology.

 

Indian psychology can be deemed as universal. Indian psychology deals with the perennial issues of human existence which are not bound by any geographical region or time. The scholars and  thinkers of ancient India were raising the same questions and dealing with the same problems that are prevalant today.  In this sense, Indian psychology is both ancient and contemporary at the same time. Most of these theories are propounded as trans-historical, dealing with the essential human nature and ways to harness human potential.

 

Another important feature of Indian psychology is that it primarily deals with the inner state of a person, taking consciousness as the primary subject matter of study. It however should not be misinterpreted that Indian psychology is not concerned about human conditions of poverty, injustice, and pain. Indian psychology does not dismiss the empirical research in these areas but provides a broader perspective within which their findings should make sense, not just be data in numbers. The theories and practices of Ayurveda are the fine examples of how everyday practices can be providing a healing effect on both physical and psychological problems

 

Indian psychology is spiritual in its orientation. Spiritual does not mean it is associated with a world that is different and un-conceivable, nor does it have any relationship with religion or rigid inflexible systems of practice. Spirituality here implies various aspects associated with the whole range of human progression, without making a distinction between natural and supernatural. It suggests developing faith in the existence of higher powers. A person who can relate to these higher powers would be able to seek the higher-order truth of life. Spirituality has given way to the development of broader theories related to human existence, understand paranormal powers, creativity, and intuitive thinking, which generally many people exhibit in their normal course of life. Though spirituality is at the core of most of the Indian theories it is not bound by any particular faith or ism and serves to provide a secular account of human nature.

 

Indian psychology has been dealing with many areas in which contemporary western psychologists are interested in. At the same time, it also has something unique which could be added to many of the contemporary thoughts. It also has many commonalities with western psychology based on the contributions it can make in the different fields related to psychology. For example, if we take up the structure of the personality then we find that the Indian system talks about ahaṁkāra, which stands somewhere in between the Western concepts of ego and self-concept. But besides this ego, which belongs to the ordinary waking consciousness, the Indian system further gives a detailed nomenclature for many other, more subtle states and levels of consciousness. It has even worked out, how consciousness can exist without any specific center whatsoever. The Indian traditional psychological theories have found how below the surface of our waking consciousness, not only the unconscious' that western psychology has explored, but a whole range of subtle kośas or layers of consciousness exists, each of which has its unique characteristic and nature.

 

Indian psychological thoughts have even worked out many different ways of 'realizing' through one's sense of being and experience which is transcendent beyond all nature. It has found that all these inner layers, types, and centers of conscious existence have their influences on the manifested personality. With sufficient training, an individual can understand these layers of personality, which can enable a sense of freedom, peace, joy, compassion, and understanding beyond what is possible in the normal waking state.

 

Indian psychology is based on realistic practicable methods. Methods of observation and experimentation are evolved to study the inner functioning of a person. In these methods of self-observation, no distinction is made between experience and observation. The true knowledge is not considered as abstract and impersonal but as the realization of one's being. There are methods of direct observation of self (e.g., intuition) is in contrast to the methods which rely on sensory and mental mediation. The methods of direct observation of self, rely on blending the understanding based on the experiences of the individual with the perspectives of others. When these two perspectives are taken together it provides personal, subjective, non-relational verification and in-group inter-subjective validity.

 

Indian psychology is applied. Indian Psychological systems does not focus only on testing the existing theories and developing generalizable propositions. It deals more importantly, about the practices that can be used for the transformation of human conditions towards perfection. That is the transformation of the person to higher levels of achievement and well-being. The goal of Indian psychology is to help the person shift from a conditional state (mechanical and habitual thinking) to an unconditional state of freedom and liberation. This transformation, in simple terms, implies becoming more objective, discretionary, balanced, and knowing about the sources of distortion. Indian psychology extensively deals with ways to deal with human suffering and lead a person in the path of personal growth.

 

Indian psychology is research-oriented. While the methodology of western psychology focuses on the study of the "other‟ person, Indian psychology (as other eastern psychologies) focuses on the study of "own-self‟. The effective changes can be brought about in human society only if understanding and approaches of both the individual self and the understanding by others of events and experiences are taken for research. The methods used in Indian psychology are perception or observation (Pratyaksha) and inductive and deductive inferential reasoning (Anumana). It also recognizes various other sources of valid knowledge such as literature by scholars or testimony by the competent authority (Sabda or Apthavachanam), Traditional knowledge (Aitihya), analogy or comparison (Upamana), implication (Arthapatti), of events (Sambhava ). Further, in addition to pure empirical observation, several other non- empirical approaches such as Intuition (Pratibha-Jnana), intuition based awareness propagated by learned people (Arsajnana), unobservable perception (Siddhadarsana ), yogic perception (Yogi-pratyaksha) are also used as the sources for developing and updating the knowledge base.