Perception – As Explained In the Ancient Indian Psychology
Perception
is the direct source of knowledge that
directly leads us in understanding the reality while other sources of knowledge
does not lead us to reality in a direct manner but using multiple processing of
the information. In Perception we are at face to face with reality. The literal
word for ''Perception" in the
ancient Indian literature is the Pratyaksa. The word ‘aksa’ means the sense
organ and ‘Prati’ means all the sense organ functioning together. Therefore the
word Pratyaksa means the function of each of the sense organs in respect to the
objects and stimulus related to it.
To
perceive a thing means to grasp or understand a thing as it is. , it is source
of direct knowledge of the objective world. It proceeds directly from sensing
of the object. Perception happens by sense-object contact and is not created by
any antecedent knowledge
All the Philosophical Schools accept
perception to be the basic and fundamental source of knowledge. Perception is termed as pratyaksa because it takes place
through the relationship to the senses (aksam aksamprati) with the either
tangible or subtle material. The contact of the sense organs with the object is
termed as a nimitta karana or the cause of Perception. In it, the perception
happens on the basis of ‘here and now’.
According
to the ancient Indian theories the process of Perception happens in a
systematic manner:
1. First
the self comes into contact with the mind.
2. Then
the mind comes in contact with the senses
3. The
senses in their turn come in contact with their objects.
4. When
the mind undergoes a modification through these contacts, then Perception
follows.
All
schools of Indian psychology have accepted perception or pratyaksa as an
important source of valid knowledge. In fact perception is the one which is
recognized by all Indian philosophers in general as the first valid source of
knowledge.
Buddhists view of perception
Dinnaga
was the first to promulgate the distinction between non-conceptual and
conceptual and that all perception is non-conceptual because what constitutes
seeing things as they really are must be free from any conceptual
construction. His claim was that a verbal report of proper perception is
strictly impossible, because such a report requires conceptualization, which
cannot be perceptual in its character. The objects of conceptual awareness are created
spontaneously in our minds and are essentially linguistic in its nature. On the
other hand, the objector stimulus
available does not carry a word
or a name as its label. Such names or labels are not available along with the
object or the stimulus, nor it is inherent in it, or even produced by it. The stimulus –as such, does not carry the real
particulars (svalakṣaṇas) along with it in any form.
According
to the Buddhist thoughts a perceiver apprehends only the real particulars,
after which they arbitrarily imposes concepts/words on them and
erroneously believes, that these words and concepts are really
there in the objects and it is integral to them. The imaginative quality
of the conceptual awareness gets automatically concealed because the conceptual
awareness results directly from experience and the perceiver interprets it to
be a perceptual experience. The perceiver fails to notice the imagination involved
and fallaciously thinks that he has really perceived the constructed world. The
Buddhists emphasize that a perceiver can only perceive real particulars present.
So any perceptual experience is always and only at the non-conceptual level.
Nyaya school
The
Nyāya view regard perception as a cognitive episode triggered by causal interaction
between a sensory abilities and an object. This interaction between the sense
organs and the object results in the formation of sensory impression, which is nothing
more than mere physiological change. This preliminary awareness, or the non-conceptual
perception, is an essential first step in the process of perception. This step is
customarily followed by a structured awareness of the object leading to
conceptual perception. Nyaya school emphasized that cognition that is
independent of preliminary sensory awareness cannot lead to a perceptual
judgment. The first awareness does not in anyway destroy the perceptual
character of the second. Infact it facilitates the subsequent awareness.
Non-conceptual perception is an indispensable factor that laeds to the generation
of conceptual perception, although memory, concepts and collateral information
may also be required.
According
to the Naiyāyikas vikalpa-s are not mental creations or imaginative
constructions. But they are objectively real properties and features of
objects. Vikalpa here indicates the process of judging and
synthesizing rather than imagining or constructing. Thus conceptual perceptions
are the true representations of the
structure of reality. The Naiyāyikas maintained the notion that the relation
between word and object is created by practice in a linguistic community.
Although the association between the concept and a word (nāma-vikalpa) happens
convention, it is not merely a fabrication. Thus knowledge of words is an essential part of perceptual awareness but
perceptual awareness, is brought about by sensory contact with the object and,
its properties exists independent of words.
The
Nyaya School distinguishes two kinds of perception, the ordinary (laukika) and
extraordinary (alaukika). The ordinary Perception is divided into two types,
namely nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka. Both nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka are based on
reality and equally valid. It is the acknowledgement of the existence and
qualities of an object without any explicit recognition or characterization or
the verbal judgment of a subject whose qualities are predicated. In Perception
of indefinite object of nirvikalpaka the object is expressed based on our past
experience. In Perception of savikalpaka the object expressed in the
proposition. In nirvikalpaka the object is comprehended as an undifferentiated
whole of the universal with its specificities. In savikalpaka the objects are
analyzed, fragmented and recombined into a module which has functional
dependent relationship among itself. Therefore compared to the nirvikalpaka,
savikalpaka is valid and more expressive.
Perception is a complex process of experience which involves
both sensation and conception. All perception we have is defined because it is
perceptual knowledge or perceptual judgment. Sensation is the result of the
contact of sense organs with any material and conception is a form of knowledge
derived through this contact. Basic sensation or simple recognition is
nirvikalpa perception. But perceptual judgment or relational comprehension is
savikalpa perception. Nyaya does not approve the psychical step by step theory
that we have first sense-experience, then conception and then judgment. But
advocates the theory that Perception is a complex presentative-representative
process in which we cannot separate direct awareness from relational judgment. Acceding
to Nyayaikikas Indeterminate perception forms the material out of which determinate
perception is shaped and that they can be distinguished only in thought and
cannot be seperated in reality. Nirvikalpa perception is the immediate
recognition, the basic awareness, the direct sense-experience which is undifferentiated
and non-relational. This does not involve the process of assimilation, discrimination, analysis and
synthesis based on any prior knowledge in relation to the material perceived. In
savikalpa perception the Simple undifferentiated, unrelated, dumb, inarticulate
awareness gained through nirvikalpa, is transformed into differentiated,
relational, conceptual and articulate knowledge by using the processes which
may involve assimilation, discrimination, analysis and synthesis.
Mimamsa
Mimamsa
school believes that the conceptual awareness is aided by memory and concepts. But
it also argues that memory and concepts does not rob the object of its
perceptual character, because it is the sense organs that are still functioning
while they are in contact with the object. The Mimamsa school further suggests
that a perceptual cognition does not arise as soon as there is contact between
a sense organs and the object. They quote the example of the experience of a
person entering a dimly lit room after walking in the blazing sun. Even though the contents of the room are openly
available to the senses of the person who has just walked in, he does not
immediately recognize the objects that are around him. However, the person may
get distinct awareness of the objects in the room and their features after a
few minutes. The perceptual character of awareness is maintained as long as the
connection between the sense organs and the object is intact, even though other
concepts or memories intervene between the time when the initial contact with the
object happens and the subsequent awareness related to the same.
The
conceptual awareness can also termed as perception even though memory is
involved because the functioning of the sense organs is the factor responsible creating
the awareness. Mimamsa thought contend that the mind must be involved in all
perceptions since it functions as a link between the sense organs and the self.
The sense organs is activated by its connection with the self and, the self is
the endowment of knowledge which is involved in all cognitions. In short
according to Mimamsa school Perception is defined as the cognition which is the
result of efficient contact of the senses with their objects. Cognition happens
by the contact of the self with the mind, the contact of the mind with the
sense organs and the interaction of the sense organs with the relevant objects.
According
to Mimamsa School there are six kinds of Perception each based on the five
external organs and one internal organ. The word artha is used for object,
stimulus or conditions as it is supposed to indicate perceptible ones. The sense
includes, five external senses: eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin and one internal
sense organ the manas. In all kinds of Perception, there must be the contact
between the organs and the object. The word ‘object’ here indicates a product
(draya), such as table, chair etc, a quality (guna), such as color (rupa), texture,
(sparsa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha) and sound (sabda). The object can also pleasure
(sukha) and pain (Klesha). The difference in happiness and sadness happens
based Perception. The word artha is used indicate object, stimulus, qualities or
conditions because the contact of the sense with the relevant and appropriate
object can only results in acquiring of the meaning which can lead to perceptual
knowledge.
Object
cognition or cognition related to quality of an object is an external
Perception. The internal cognition which
is the result of mental perception is more associated with emotions involving
pleasure or pain.
Samkhya school
Samkhya
School states that perception is the mental portrayal of the objects, and
perceptual knowledge is like any other form of knowledge which is attained
through modification of buddhi or intellect. The term Pratyaksa denotes only a
small portion of immediate experience according to the Samkhya School and
whatever is experienced of internally remains outside the range of the
definition given for Pratyaksa
Kapila,
the founder of Samkhya school, defines “Perception as a cognition which takes
the form of an object, being related to it". Vindyasvamin, define
pratyaksa as "The sense organs come in contact with their respective
objects and are accordingly modified into the form of the object”. Isvarakrsana
defines Perception as a determinate knowledge in respect of every individual
object.
Vacaspati’s
approach to perception is that perception is a modification of the mind which
leads to a definite cognition of objects which is formed by the sense-object
contact. He states that, intellect (buddhi), ego (ahankara), mind (manas) and
the senses (indriyas) constitute the machinery through which external object is
recognized by the person. The contact od sense organs with an object triggers
the senses. The manas organizes the impressions created by the senses into a
perception. These perceptions thus formed is linked to self by the ego. Based
on the relationship of the perception to ego the intellect finally forms the
concept. This theory perception does not distinguish between proper and
improper functioning of sense organ, as a result the difference between valid
and erroneous perceptions is not differentiated. Hence by this theory Perception cannot be
accepted as a means of knowledge (pramāṇa).
Another
definition given by Samkhya school is that perception is an ascertainment
by buddhi or intellect in regard to a sense organs. This implies that
perception leads to modification of the intellect in the form of selective
ascertainment, brought about by the functioning of a sense organs. This
characterization of perception as an “ascertainment” leading to modification of
the intellect gives the idea that perception, is an instrument of knowledge,
and primary means of acquiring knowledge. Ascertainment that is a part of
intellect is regarded as the instrument of perception, the same Ascertainment when
it becomes a part of self it is regarded as the result of the process of
perception.
The
function of the senses with regard to the objects is “a mere seeing of feeling”
and the function of the intellect, leads to “identification” of the object. This
suggests that perception is a two-stage process. The first stage is the
functioning of the senses results in mere seeing or feeling the object
(non-conceptualized awareness) and, later this sensory inputs are acted upon by
the intellect or mind which results in a conceptual identification of the
object. This two-stage process is very similar to the theories of perception
given by the Mīmāṃsakas and the Naiyāyikas.
Yoga school
Yoga,
is an allied system of Samkhya Philosophy. According to the yoga school of
thought, Perception is an independent source of knowledge. Perception as
described as the direct or immediate knowledge, which is not derived through
the medium of some other knowledge. Perception excludes inference which is constructed
through the functioning of the knowledge related to universal relationship.
Perception also excludes the analogy which is produced through the functioning of
the knowledge related to similarity and the verbal testimony which is produced
through the functioning of the knowledge of words.
Vedanta school
Advaita
Vedānta states Perception as a Pramana, which is the unique cause of attaining
valid knowledge. According to Advaitha Vedanta the origin of perceptual
cognition are due to the functions sense organs which is termed as the Karana.
Perception can be attributed to the activity to our sense organs. According to
Sankara the pioneer of Vedanta school, Knowledge attained through this source
is more concerned with the empirical world.
It
provides us the direct consciousness related to the objects which are generally
obtained through the exercise of the senses. According to him, the real
knowledge that emancipates from true perception or the Pratyaksa Prama is
immediate and timeless knowledge (Chaitnaya). We get this knowledge through the
function of antahkaranvrtti. In this Perception, the transparent Antahkarana
penetrates the objects through the sense organs. The transformation that
happens in the internal organ or Manas with regard to the form of the object is
called antahkaranvrtti.
Perception
in Vedanta school has been generally explained by Indriyartha Samnikarsha,
contact of the senses and their respective objects which involves three stages.
The contact of the sense organ with its object, the union of the sense with
manas, mind which happened along with it and mind with atman or self. In short,
the Identification of the subject and object consciousness by the conscious
mind (chitta) and accepting the form of the external object is Perception.
The
nature of perception without any sense-object contact are the ones related to
pleasure and pain, the perceptions that are directly intuited. Advaitins
consider perception is simply the immediacy of consciousness and knowledge
which is not mediated by any mechanism. The Advaitins consider the sensory
connection as accidental, rather than essential, to the perceptual process.
The
Neo-Advaitins acknowledge the distinction between conceptual or determinate
perception which they refer to as viṣayagata pratyakṣa, and non-conceptual or
indeterminate perception the nirvikaplapka pratyakṣa. But they do not think
that the non-conceptual perception is a prior stage of conceptualized
perception, as other schools do.
Advatins
accept that determinate Perception does not give knowledge of reality. They
believe that indeterminate Perception is the only valid Perception.
Indeterminate Perception presents the absolute Brahman or the ideal universal
self alone as its cognition which
includes the concept of 'Thou art that (tat tvam asi).
Both
Advaita and Samkhya are of the view that at the nirvikalpaka level the
relationship between the object and the qualities does not present themselves
completely. It is the level of mere sensation and at this stage, the mind does
not come into play.. Subsequently, the mind interprets the sensations through
the fluctuations that it experiences ( vritti) based on which a distinction is
brought about between the object and its attributes. It is the Thought
separates distinguishes the object from its attributes based on what is present
in the object and its qualities. It is based on this differentiation we
perceive object and quality in relation to each other at the savikalpaka level
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